John Tyman Sawos Journal

Dr. John Tyman's Journal
CULTURES IN CONTEXT: SAWOS I'm Dr. John Tyman. I lived with the Sawos people of the village of Torembi in 1981 and '82, and again in '94. Torembi is actually made up of three separate villages, called Torembi 1, 2 and 3, as well as the Torembi Christian mission. It's in East Sepik province, not far from the coast as the crow flies, but difficult to reach overland. I travelled there by light aircraft. There's an airstrip near the mission.
I got to know many people in Torembi and they allowed me to take many photographs and collect hours of sound recordings. In this part of the database, I can introduce you to some of the people I met as they went about their daily lives or took part in family and community celebrations.

1. AGRICULTURE

Small-scale farming or gardening has always been extremely important to the people of Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, families grew a range of foodstuffs in gardens - enough to satisfy their own immediate needs. These foods were augmented with other fresh produce, which could be gathered from the surrounding environment. The soil in PNG is not sufficiently fertile for intensive farming over long periods of time, so gardens were left fallow for many years to recover nutrients, while the people cleared other areas for planting.
More recently, as the population has grown, especially in urban areas, the country as a whole is no longer self-sufficient in food production. Some food products are being imported. Cash crops are being grown in increasing quantities, including coffee, coconuts (for copra), rubber, tea and palm oil. The small but developing agricultural sector is being encouraged by the national government to enhance export opportunities.
(Related entries: CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, GARDENS, GEOGRAPHY, PALM OIL, SHIFTING CULTIVATION, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)

2. AID

Papua New Guinea receives a large amount of financial and other aid, especially from Australia, to assist in its overall development. The Australian Government’s aid program is managed by AusAID, the Australian Agency for International Development. As Australia has been involved with the administration of PNG for much of this century, PNG receives the largest portion of the Australian aid program. The overall aim of the program is to promote sustainable development, self-reliance, stability and social cohesion in PNG and to assist with economic reforms. Australia has provided budget support since 1975. This aid has gradually been reduced, and the aid focus will continue to shift towards directly supporting individual development projects. These projects are decided upon in consultation with the Papua New Guinea Government. Aid-assisted projects have included road resurfacing, bridge maintenance, immunisation programs, communication equipment for aviation, maintenance of rural air-strips, school construction, teacher training, improvements to rural health services, assistance to policing services, drought and disaster relief and rural development projects.
Other providers of aid to PNG include New Zealand, Germany, the World Bank and the United Nations Development program.
(Related entries: AUSTRALIA, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY)

3. ART: Contemporary

In Papua New Guinea, art has never been seen as something separate from life.
Creative expression has always been part of day-to-day living and there is no tradition of the professional artist. PNG is changing rapidly, and there are now many professional artists expressing their ideas using both traditional art forms and new forms of design and materials, finding new ways to express their complex heritage in different circumstances. In PNG there is a commitment to the power of contemporary art as a way of reflecting the new social and political experiences of the people and the great vitality and diversity of the nation. Because of the cultural diversity of PNG’s population, as well as the wide range of environments and circumstances affecting its people, there are enormous variations in style of creative expression and artistic tradition. But while contemporary artists may be inspired by the work of their ancestors, they are not constrained by tradition, because they are making their art for a much wider audience than their local community. Contemporary PNG artists, unlike their ancestors, have the opportunity to communicate their ideas, beliefs and hopes to a wider world.
(Related entries: ART: Agatha Waramin, ART: David Lassisi, ART: Joe Nalo, ART: Taba Silau, ART: Sepik, PARLIAMENT HOUSE, HAUS TAMBARAN)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_sepi.mp3

4. ART: Agatha Waramin

Agatha Waramin is a well-known artist and expert bilum maker. She lived for many years in Port Moresby, but originally came from Wewak in the East Sepik province. In her work she uses both natural and synthetic materials. She has invented new patterns and colours, and has learnt how to make bilum styles from all over the country.
She is also a teacher, believing that young people in PNG today should learn how to make bilums using natural materials and traditional dyes. For this reason she is active in campaigning to conserve the forest environment from which the bark, dyes and fibres are gathered.
Agatha Waramin has been successful in a country where very few women have full-time careers as visual artists.
(Related entries: ART: Contemporary, BILUM)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_bilu.mp3

5. ART: David Lassisi

David Lassisi is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist, born in 1955 in New Ireland province. He studied graphic arts at the Creative Arts Centre in Port Moresby and represented Papua New Guinea at the World Crafts Council Conference in Mexico in 1976. He has participated in the provincial New Ireland government and studied in the United States as a Fulbright Scholar.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_cont.mp3

6. ART: Joe Nalo

Joe Nalo, born in 1951 on Johnston Island, is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist. While still at school he won awards for his art work. He trained as a teacher and taught Expressive Arts and general subjects in Morobe province. He became headmaster of Salamaua Boarding School and studied art with Lucy Walker, an Australian artist. He won a scholarship to attend the Creative Arts Centre in Port Moresby. Joe Nalo taught at the National Arts School, and later became the Chief Curator of Contemporary Art at the PNG National Museum and Art Gallery. Meanwhile, he has continued with his own work for exhibitions and commissions.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)

7. ART: Sepik

Art from the Sepik region is characterised by original and striking creative expression and Sepik is probably the most widely recognised of Papua New Guinea's artistic styles. It is virtually impossible to make generalisations about Sepik art, so diverse and rich are its expressions. Design elements differ throughout the region, with many varieties of motifs, methods and materials. Sepik art is famous for spectacular feather headdresses and elaborate dance costumes, some over 5 metres tall, as well as drums, painted masks made of bark, shields, sculptured figures, canoes and other carved objects, such as decorative hooks from which to hang personal possessions.
Part of the beauty and expressiveness of Sepik art lies in its traditional spiritual significance and in its representation of the spiritual power of ancestors. For example, inside the haus tambaran, or spirit house, intricately carved masks are made to be part of initiation ceremonies in which boys are prepared for manhood. In the Sepik region, the artistic tradition is reflected in everyday items as well as objects of ceremonial significance. The abundance and richness of Sepik art forms can be partly explained by the trading and communication made possible by the Sepik River itself. Today, tourists enthusiastically purchase Sepik art, much of which is now produced specifically for sale.
(Related entries: ART: Contemporary, HAUS TAMBARAN, SEPIK REGION)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_bila.mp3
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_htam.mp3
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/art_pahs.mp3

8. ART: Taba Silau

Taba Silau is a contemporary Papua New Guinean artist. He was born in 1957 in Madang province. After attending high school he won a scholarship to attend the National Arts School. He has exhibited widely, his work often reflecting the traditional stories from his home in the Gogol River basin of Madang province.
(Related entry: ART: Contemporary)

9. AUSTRALIA

Australia has had a close association with Papua New Guinea this century. In 1905, Australia took over the administration of the then Papua, which covered the former British New Guinea. In 1919, after the end of World War I, German New Guinea became a mandated territory of Australia. During World War II New Guinea was occupied by the Japanese. It was returned to Australia as a trust territory in 1945, until the nation of Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975. PNG receives considerable amounts of financial and other aid, especially from Australia, to assist in its overall development. PNG receives the largest portion of the Australian aid program, reflecting Australia’s responsibilities towards its former territory.
(Related entries: AID, EUROPEAN COLONISATION, EXPORT AND IMPORT, HISTORY – Recent, INDEPENDENCE)

10. BARTER AND EXCHANGE

Exchanging goods for other goods, or exchanging goods for work, without the use of money, is called barter. In this type of trade, those involved must agree to the exchange. Barter is important in many parts of Papua New Guinea where people get most of what they need from their environment and can add to this by bartering with people from neighbouring areas which produce different items. For example, the women of Torembi harvest sago from the local swamps, then exchange it for fish caught by women who live on the banks of the Sepik river.
(Related entries: ECONOMY, KINA, MARKETS, MONEY)

11. BILAS: Body Decoration

Body decoration is seen universally as a form of creative expression. People wear makeup and jewellery, acquire tattoos, wear hats, sunglasses and all kinds of accessories. In Papua New Guinea, body decoration or self-adornment is known in Pidgin as bilas (see Pidgin). Just as there are many different cultures in PNG, so forms of bilas vary in style and meaning, and can reveal aspects of the identity of the person or the community to which the wearer belongs. Different colours, designs and materials have different meanings.
The skin itself has been the focus of much bilas. Traditionally, ear lobes and nostrils are pierced, then decorated with shells and other ornaments. In the East Sepik region, the chests and upper backs of young men are scarred during their initiation, often in patterns representing their animal totem. Face and body painting are also important. Natural materials were used to make paints, with different groups having traditional colours. Today, modern paints, as well as natural ones, are often used for the same purpose.
Bilas is especially widespread and finely developed in the Highlands where there is little or no tradition of carving. The creation of ceremonial dance costumes and wigs is important in this region. Some of the most striking examples of bilas are the great masks, often carried on the heads of dancers. The Asaro mudmen of the Eastern Highlands wear a headpiece made mainly of clay plastered over a structure in which eye sockets, ears and mouth have been created. The dancers’ bodies are covered with the same clay.
Many forms of bilas are no longer practised although ear piercing is still popular. One of the main reasons for this decline is the colonisation of PNG by Europeans. In the past many missionaries thought bilas to be sinful and discouraged the practice, especially the ritual scarification associated with initiation.
In PNG today, most people wear contemporary clothing and traditional forms of bilas, including body adornment, costumes and headdresses are usually worn only on special occasions or at events attended by tourists. In recent times, the wearing of bilas has been revived as a way of asserting traditional culture and national identity.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, CLOTHING)

12. BILUM

All over Papua New Guinea, people carry handwoven string bags, often beautifully coloured and decorated. These are called bilums, a Melanesian Pidgin word (see Pidgin). Traditionally, bilums are created by women using natural bush string made from plant fibres. These fibres are beaten, washed and shredded before being twisted into string.
Bilums are made with a single long string, using a looping technique and no knots. It is very time consuming. The string is fed through every loop and has to be kept to a manageable length, so additional lengths of string are added again and again as the work progresses. The resulting bags though, are very flexible, enormously strong and can expand to extraordinary sizes. Bilums are used to carry everything from firewood and sago to babies. They may also be used as garments or ritual adornments, as items of exchange or as gifts.
Over many generations, older women have handed down the knowledge and skill required to make bilums. In recent times, women have started to use new materials, including brightly-coloured cotton, plastic and synthetic yarns to create new, intricate and beautiful designs. By making and selling bilums, women can also achieve some economic independence within their local communities.
(Related entries: ART: Agatha Waramin, SAGO SCRAPING, WOMEN)

13. BIRDS OF PARADISE

Papua New Guinea abounds with birdlife; around 700 species have been recorded. Perhaps the best known of these are the birds of paradise, of which there are about 40 varieties. Birds of paradise are characterised by their beautiful plumage. The male birds are especially colourful, using their plumage to attract a mate. Many birds of paradise have in the past been killed for their feathers, to be used in traditional bilas, or as items of trade. Today, birds of paradise are protected by government legislation. So synonymous is the bird of paradise with Papua New Guinea, that one is featured on the national flag.
(Related entries: BILAS, FLORA AND FAUNA, NATIONAL FLAG)

14. BRIDE PRICE

The premarriage ritual of the bride price ceremony is one of the most significant celebrations in Sawos society, and for the people of the village of Torembi. Women play the major role in food production. Because of this, when a man invites a woman to be his wife, her family requires compensation, commonly known as a bride price. This also serves to keep money circulating in the community and binds it together in a complex pattern of mutual indebtedness - since all members of the groom’s clan are expected to contribute.
The ceremony involves the groom’s family bestowing gifts on the family of the bride, thus sealing the marriage contract. There are three stages and the whole process can take over a year or two, as it is impossible to raise large amounts of money overnight. In the final stage of the celebration, amidst singing, dancing and music, the bride is escorted to her new home. During this stage there will often be dancing by the women and various ‘choirs’ singing wedding songs. In these songs, the woman is given advice about marriage - bringing up children, gardening, sago preparation and household tasks, amongst other things.
(Related entries: CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, MARRIAGE, SAWOS, WEDDINGS)

15. CACAO

Cacao, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, was introduced into Papua New Guinea as a cash crop. It was at one time an important export item, second only to coffee in terms of cash crop production. However, continuing troubles on Bougainville since the late 1980s have forced commercial agricultural activities on that island to be abandoned.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)

16. CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES: Sawos

As in all cultures, many events are cause for celebration in Sawos society. Marriage is celebrated with a series of feasts at both the bride and groom’s homes and accompanied by songs and rituals to honour the event. Once in a lifetime the people of neighbouring villages may come together to celebrate the opening of a new haus tambaran, or spirit house, a significant spiritual event in the life of the community. Funeral ceremonies are important in marking the transition of the deceased from this life to the spirit world. There are also other causes for celebration such as the completion of secondary school.
Most celebrations involve feasting. A pig is usually killed for the event, cooked and shared with guests. Many celebrations also involve wearing traditional bilas or body decoration, as well as music and song.
(Related entries: BILAS, BRIDE PRICE, FUNERALS, HAUS TAMBARAN, INITIATION, MARRIAGE, WEDDINGS)

17. CHRISTIANITY

Christianity is officially the dominant religion in Papua New Guinea today. Around 65% of the population is Protestant and around 30% are Catholic. In the nineteenth century, many Christian missionaries from a variety of religious groups set up missions, under British, German and Dutch administrations. Traditional beliefs are nevertheless still widespread, with many people combining Christian and traditional spiritual beliefs and practices. The traditional beliefs play a significant role in the daily lives of the people of PNG, through traditional celebrations, rituals and community roles and relationships.
(Related entries: BILAS, CULTURE: Diversity, HAUS TAMBARAN, INITIATION, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea, MISSION: Torembi, RELIGION)

18. CLIMATE

Papua New Guinea is located in the tropics, very close to the Equator. The winds that blow across the warm seas carry clouds and moisture. This means that most of the country has high temperatures, heavy rainfall and high humidity, making it one of the cloudiest countries in the world.
There are really only two seasons in the year, the Wet and the Dry (or not quite so wet). In the Wet season, from November to April, the North West Monsoon winds carry enormous amounts of rain to the island. Because the high mountain ranges cause the moisture-laden winds to drop their water, some areas are in rain shadows and receive less rain than others. Port Moresby is in the driest part of the country, receiving only around 1 000 millimetres of rain in an average year. Lae, on the other hand, receives on average up to 5 000 millimetres per year, and has even been deluged with 9 000 millimetres of rain over a year – that is 9 metres of rain!
Being close to the Equator, temperatures vary little throughout the year, but they do vary according to height above sea level. On a single day it might be 35 degrees Celsius on the coast and cold enough for frost up in the central Highlands.
(Related entries: HUMIDITY, RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE)

19. CLOTHING

Today most people in Papua New Guinea wear contemporary shirts, shorts, trousers, skirts, dresses and so on, much the same as one would expect to see in most industrialised countries. As the climate is hot for most of the year, clothing tends to be lightweight. Traditionally, however, people in Papua New Guinea wear clothing which reflects their local culture, tribal and clan associations. Such clothing and body decoration, or bilas, use local materials such as leaves, grasses, shells and feathers, with special colours and designs to identify the wearer with his or her cultural connections. Though spoken of as ‘grass skirts’ the traditional clothes worn by Sepik women (now worn only on special occasions) were in fact made from the leaves of the sago palm.
Missionaries in the past frowned upon the wearing of bilas and discouraged the practice. But in recent times, wearing bilas at special occasions or celebrations has become a way of asserting traditional culture and identity.
(Related entries: BILAS, CLIMATE)

20. COCONUTS AND COPRA

Copra is a foodstuff made up of the dried kernels of coconuts. It is the crop which first attracted traders to the South Pacific region. It is one of Papua New Guinea’s significant export items, grown as part of the country’s developing agricultural sector. However, while existing coconut palms have been harvested, commercial grade palms have generally not been planted, so overall productivity is not high. Export of agricultural products generally accounts for around 10% of all exports from Papua New Guinea. Most are not processed locally but exported in raw form.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, CACAO, COFFEE, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)

21. COFFEE

The Eastern Highlands is the centre of Papua New Guinea’s coffee industry and is one of the major coffee growing regions in the country. In the Eastern Highlands, about a third of all households grow coffee as a cash crop, in addition to their subsistence farming. Coffee is one of PNG’s major export items from the agricultural sector, representing around a quarter of all agricultural exports which in turn account for around 10% of all exports.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, DEVELOPMENT, PALM OIL)

22. COMMUNICATIONS: Broadcast

Broadcast radio services operate throughout Papua New Guinea in a variety of languages, including English, Pidgin and Hiri Motu. Television is also broadcast, through a single, locally-based commercial television station, EM TV, based in Port Moresby, which is a subsidiary of the Nine Network Australia. Other television services can be seen via satellite, including those provided by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. At the village level, radio is the more likely mode of receiving news and information, using battery power, as electricity is generally unavailable in rural or remote areas.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, LANGUAGE, TELECOMMUNICATIONS)

23. CROCODILES

Crocodiles are one of the earth’s largest reptiles and can live up to 40 years or more. They thrive in the waters of the Sepik River and its tributaries. Crocodiles may attack humans when their territories have been invaded and this is an ever-present threat to those who live, work and play in and near river waters.
Crocodiles feature prominently in the cultural life of the peoples who live in the Sepik region. Crocodile heads are carved onto the prows of wooden canoes and their features are incorporated into the design of garamut drums. The form and texture of their leathery, armoured skin are also echoed in the ritual scarification associated with initiation of young men into adulthood within some tribal communities.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, BILAS, DRUMS: Garamut, INITIATION, SEPIK RIVER)

24. CRY SONGS: Sawos

When a Sawos villager dies, the women mourn for the dead by singing special songs of dedication called ‘cry songs’. The music of the funeral ceremony will often be played behind screens, so that the women and children may participate in song, but do not actually see the instruments which accompany their singing. These instruments are believed to represent the voices of the ‘spirits’. Traditionally, the Sawos believe that such instruments are sacred and may be seen and played only by men, and they are stored in the haus tambaran.
(Related entries: FUNERALS, HAUS TAMBARAN, MUSIC)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/crysong.mp3

25. CULTURE: Diversity

The interrelationships with particular and diverse environments in Papua New Guinea shape culture. Culture is expressed in things such as language, artistic tradition, architecture, dress and music, as well as the way in which people relate to each other, how they see their identity, and what they believe in. The distinctive features of a particular place can affect every aspect of life, not just the way people use the environment to cultivate food or provide shelter, but also people’s relationships, roles and responsibilities within the community.
In PNG, the isolation caused by geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers or sea, has been the catalyst for the development of diverse cultures. For example, in the cultural life of the highland people, communal singsings are celebrated, which traditionally allowed warring tribes to put aside their differences. They are still held to mark important events.
Part of the culture of the coastal and island people is to exchange gifts as signs of peace and generosity to neighbours. In lowland areas around the Sepik River a distinctive artistic tradition has developed. Intricately designed buildings called haus tambaran are set aside for ancestral spirits and ordinary household objects are often beautifully carved, painted and decorated.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, GEOGRAPHY, SEPIK RIVER, WANTOK)

26. CUSCUS

The cuscus is a slow-moving, nocturnal marsupial found in Papua New Guinea, rainforest areas of Northern Queensland and nearby islands. It feeds mainly on fruits and leaves. About the size of a domestic cat, it has a prehensile tail, that is, one which is capable of grasping things. As the cuscus is a tree dweller, this is especially useful as it moves around the branches.
The Sawos people hunt the cuscus for its meat and its fur. Some are also kept as pets. Their fur is used in the creation of special headbands used by many Sawos men as part of bilas worn at special occasions. Traditionally, the wearing of such a headdress indicated that the wearer had killed a man in defence of the village.
(Related entries: BILAS, FLORA AND FAUNA)

27. DEBATING STOOL: Sawos

In Sawos society, decision making relating to issues of village life is a communal activity. Important decisions are not made individually, but are debated and made by the men of the village, usually within the haus tambaran. Such decision making involves only adult males. Women’s influence in village decision making can only be informal and they are not permitted to participate directly in the actual debate.
A debating stool is in fact a carved wooden figure, usually painted and decorated, which is given pride of place within the haus tambaran. When a man has the floor during a debate, from time to time he will strike the stool with a switch of leaves to emphasise his point. Any man can speak and, eventually, a consensus agreement will be reached. Some meetings will go all day as opinions are expressed and considered by the men of the community.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, HAUS TAMBARAN)

28. DEVELOPMENT

Papua New Guinea is a developing country with a population of about 4 million people in 1998, about 40% of whom are aged 14 years or less. The modern sector of PNG’s economy is still young and relatively small. Over 70% of the population are subsistence farmers, living in rural villages and depending on gardening to grow crops for food and for sale at local markets.
Most of the wealth, access to reliable services, education and paid employment is concentrated in the few urban areas. The young drift from rural to urban areas in search of jobs which do not yet exist. Creating employment is one of the pressing priorities of government. Another priority is to improve the economic opportunities, health, education and general living standards for people living in villages.
PNG is well placed in terms of development with its rich supply of natural resources and its location in the Asia-Pacific region. In the Sepik area, development has included commercial enterprises such as cattle raising projects, crocodile hunting, growing coffee, coconuts and rice for export and a small but expanding tourist industry.
PNG’s development depends partly on foreign aid. It receives one of the highest rates of aid per capita in the world and Australia is by far the largest donor.
PNG is a nation in transition, where any decisions made regarding development will potentially have significant social, cultural and environmental impact on the country and its people.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, AID, CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, ECONOMY, EXPORT AND IMPORT, POPULATION)

29. DRUMS: Sawos - Garamut

Large drums, called garamut, are played by Sawos men in religious ceremonies. The garamut is an idiophone, which means the instrument itself makes the sound. The garamut’s sound and pitch are determined by size and thickness and the length of the narrow slit which is a feature of its construction. Garamut drums are carved from wood and often decorated with totems. They vary in size and, like many instruments in Sawos culture, are usually played in pairs. They are also used to send tapets, or personal signals. Every villager has an individual tapet, or call sign, which may be played on a garamut.
The largest garamuts are housed in the haus tambaran and are used in music relating to the spiritual life of the community. Others are used more generally as tools of communication in village life, to make public announcements and to contact individuals. For example, a young woman’s tapet will be played to call her to her marriage ceremony, or messages will be sent to call participants in to ceremonies or community events.
(Related entry: DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/garamut1.mp3
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/garamut2.mp3
http://www.johntyman.com/sawos/audio/garamut3.mp3

30. DRUMS: Sawos - Kundu

Kundu drums are used by the Sawos to accompany the singing at various celebrations. Made of hardwood, they are classed as membranophones, because the sound is made from the snakeskin or lizard skin stretched over the drum’s opening. Kundu drums have no religious significance and are used for ceremonies attended by men and women - for example, bride price, marriage and engagement ceremonies.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)

31. DRUMS: Sawos - Water

Water drums are traditional Sawos instruments, still used by the Sawos who live furthest from the influence of Christian missionaries. They are known locally as abuk waak and are sacred instruments used in initiation ceremonies. Water drums are made of wood and extremely heavy, requiring two men to use them. They are similar in shape to an hour glass. The sound is made by plunging them into pools of water. These drums are apparently unique to the middle Sepik region of Papua New Guinea.
(Related entry: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed)

32. EASTERN HIGHLANDS

The Eastern Highlands are characterised by steep and rugged mountains. They are covered by dense rainforests, with grassy valleys below. The area is marked by great diversity in language and, unlike other parts of the country, has a temperate climate with cool nights and warm days. Goroka, 1 600 metres above sea level, is the largest town in the area and it is the provincial capital of the Eastern Highlands. The well-known Asaro mud men are from an Eastern Highland village called Komunive.
(Related entries: BILAS, PROVINCES)

33. ECONOMY

Papua New Guinea’s economy falls into two categories: traditional and modern.
The traditional economy, which supports over two-thirds of the population, is based on subsistence agriculture. Most rural communities are self-sufficient, with well-organised gardens growing enough food for family and village. The urban population, which is relatively small, operates as a modern economy which depends largely on exports to produce income and spends the income on imported food and manufactured goods. The differences between the urban and the rural economy are marked.
PNG exports mainly primary products. Huge copper and gold mines have been carved out of the jungle, raising concerns about the effects on the environment and the loss of traditional lands. Some of the most well known mining developments are the Ok Tedi copper and gold mine, the Porgera gold mine and the Bougainville copper mine. The other major exports are almost entirely agricultural crops such as coffee, cacao and copra, which is the dry kernel of the coconut. The country also exports large quantities of timber and has a sizeable fishing industry. Despite its wealth of resources, the expense of transporting goods across the rough and mountainous terrain, where air transport is often the only practical option, is one of the major challenges to the economy.
In less than 100 years, PNG has developed from a colonial country, with small traditional economies, to a modern, independent nation, operating in a competitive and demanding global environment. However, there are many challenges facing the nation, still largely dependent on foreign aid and where access to employment opportunities, education, telecommunications and other services is limited, especially in rural and remote areas.
(Related entries: AID, DEVELOPMENT, KINA, MARKETS, MONEY, POPULATION)

34. EDUCATION

Papua New Guinea’s education system is still expanding. Schools were originally set up by missions or by the former Australian administration and many are still run by missions or church organisations. However, a national Department of Education now manages most schools and their curriculum offerings. Education is structured to provide two preschool years in a village or community setting, six years at primary school level, incorporating the first two years of high school studies, and four years of secondary education.
Preschools and primary schools are available to all children, though not all of the eligible age group actually attend (76% boys and 66% girls in 1990). High school places are relatively limited.
Primary schooling is generally available within the local village, but children often have to move to larger centres into boarding accommodation if they wish to go on to secondary level. As boarding is relatively expensive, even with government subsidies, going on to secondary school is not a viable option for many children. Retention rates are relatively low, especially in this transition from primary to secondary schooling.
To date, only a small proportion of students go on to tertiary studies. Despite this, there are numerous institutes of tertiary education, including two universities, the University of Papua New Guinea in Port Moresby and the University of Technology in Lae. There are also teacher training colleges, technical and business training institutes and agricultural colleges. Most tertiary students receive scholarships and a small living allowance to enable them to pursue their studies. Across the population, adult literacy levels, estimated at between 50 – 70%, are slowly rising as a result of literacy awareness programs.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, SCHOOL: Torembi)

35. EMPLOYMENT

Formal employment is growing at a very slow pace in Papua New Guinea. The growth of employment is, in fact, not keeping up with the overall growth in population. Urban unemployment and rural under-employment are a problem for the nation. Unemployment is most obvious among younger people. Increased public investment is needed to create growth and, in turn, employment opportunities.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, EDUCATION, POPULATION)

36. ENVIRONMENT

There are a number of environmental concerns facing Papua New Guinea today. Industrial development, while necessary to economic growth, can have detrimental effects on the environment. Mining operations can create soil erosion and run-offs from mine tailings which can cause pollution, while the safe disposal of chemicals is very difficult. Uncontrolled logging has caused soil erosion and downstream siltation of rivers. Water pollution threatens rivers, extensive mangrove systems and ultimately marine resources. If the rich biodiversity which characterises PNG is to be preserved, effective management of development is crucial.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FLORA AND FAUNA, FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHY, MINING, POPULATION)

37. EUROPEAN COLONISATION

The first Europeans to visit the island of New Guinea were probably Portuguese seafarers in the sixteenth century. A Portuguese sea captain, Jorge de Meneses, sighted the mainland in 1526 and called it Illpas dos Papuas, ‘Land of the curly-haired people’. The main island was called New Guinea by a Spanish explorer, Inigo Ortiz de Retes, because the people he met reminded him of people from Africa’s Guinea coastal area. Throughout the following centuries, New Guinea was visited by many European traders in search of such treasures as pearls and gold.
There was even an appalling trade in human beings - a slave trade - with many people from New Guinea being kidnapped to work in Queensland’s sugar plantations. Many of their descendants still live in Australia. In 1848 the Dutch claimed sovereignty over the western half of the main island, now known as Irian Jaya and governed by Indonesia. The other half was split in two when Germany annexed the north, and Britain the south. With their superior weapons, these foreign invaders defeated anyone who opposed them. Then, in 1906, Australia took over the government of the British colony and named it Papua. In 1919, the Australians took over the ex-German colony as a trust territory. After World War II, Papua New Guinea remained under Australian supervision. Aided by the Australian Government, PNG began to prepare for independence. On 16 September 1975, Papua New Guinea became an independent parliamentary democracy, ending nearly one hundred of years of colonial rule.
(Related entries: HISTORY: Early, HISTORY: Recent, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea)

38. EXPORT AND IMPORT

The major exports of Papua New Guinea are minerals, including gold, silver, copper ore and petroleum. Other important exports include timber, palm oil, coffee, copra, fish and shellfish. Major imports include manufactured goods, foodstuffs, machinery and equipment. Australia has been the main source of these imported items, especially construction materials and machinery. This predominance is changing slowly as cheaper consumer goods are being imported from other countries, especially Asian nations. The major suppliers of imports are presently Australia, Japan and Singapore.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, AUSTRALIA, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, MINING)

39. FISHING INDUSTRY

Coastal communities in Papua New Guinea have always harvested fish from the sea as part of their daily diet. Fish are an excellent source of protein. Local communities have also fished along the extensive river networks throughout the country, using the catch for barter and exchange as well as eating it.
In recent times, the PNG government has encouraged maritime fishing on a larger scale for both domestic use and export. The most significant yield from surrounding sea waters includes tuna, prawns, barramundi and lobster.
The industry is small but growing, as PNG has abundant supplies of fish along its extensive coastline. Licences have been issued for fishing in specified areas in order to control commercial development.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FORESTRY, MINING, TOURISM)

40. FLORA AND FAUNA

Over 75% of Papua New Guinea is covered by tropical rainforest, which flourishes in the hot, wet climate. Plants grow quickly in this environment and trees can reach 45 metres or more in height, spreading their roots above as well as below the ground, forming buttresses. The canopy, which forms as branches from the top storey meet, protects the lush lower storeys of palms, ferns and other plant life.
Swamp forests are found in lowland areas, with mangrove forests close to river mouths and sago palm forests further inland. There are also drier areas which are grassy savannas with a scattering of trees. In the higher parts of the mountainous regions, deciduous trees and pines can be found.
Animal life in Papua New Guinea is closely related to that found in Australia. The two countries were joined together until around 8 000 years ago when they were separated by a rise in sea level. PNG is home to animals such as wallabies, tree kangaroos, possums and echidnas, as well as an extraordinary range of beautiful butterflies and moths. There are also many types of reptiles, including crocodiles, goannas and taipans. Birdlife is also abundant, with the spectacular birds of paradise best known.
Animals including pigs, dogs and chickens have been introduced into PNG by people migrating to the islands over hundreds of years. The pig is especially valued as a sign of wealth and is a prized possession and an important part of many ceremonies. The number of pigs a person owns is an indicator of power and influence.
(Related entries: BIRDS OF PARADISE, CUSCUS, ENVIRONMENT, PIGS, SAGO PALM)

41. FLUTES: Sawos

The long flutes played by initiated Sawos men are made from bamboo and are kept in the haus tambaran. These flutes, which are always played in pairs, are carefully pitched and represent the voices of various spirits. Young initiates play the amblam, long open-ended pan pipes, to learn the sacred melodies for the long flute duets. There are also short flutes made of bamboo of varying lengths, with one finger hole, which are played either in pairs or singly.
Pan pipes with closed ends are played by men, women and children. There is also a large bamboo pipe which is sung into and used as a kind of trumpet/megaphone in religious ceremonies. Sometimes these are used in pairs.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, HAUS TAMBARAN, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, SAWOS)

42. FOOD: in Torembi

The village of Torembi is situated on the flood plain of the Sepik River. Most of the food used by the villagers is grown or harvested locally. Processed and pre-packaged foods are available, but these tend to be expensive.
The staple food is sago, harvested by women and made into sago pancakes. Also, every family in Torembi has a garden. Small clearings are made in flood-free sections of the nearby forest and fences protect crops from foraging pigs. Common foodstuffs grown include tropical fruits, green vegetables, sugar cane, corn, onions, peanuts, taro and yams. Protein is provided by fish from the river, chickens and pigs; peanuts are a less important protein source. Wild greens and coconuts are gathered and do not need to be cultivated.
Food must be regularly harvested and prepared as there is no refrigeration and the hot climate means fresh food spoils easily.
The responsibility for food production and gathering is largely that of women. Men might occasionally work in the family garden, but it is women who harvest sago, collect wild greens and cultivate or gather other foods.
(Related entries: FOOD PRODUCTION, GARDENS, SAGO, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)

43. FOOD PRODUCTION: in PNG
Food production is generally keeping pace with population and demand in rural areas. Staples such as taro, yams and sweet potato are sometimes in short supply in urban areas, where there is a greater dependence on imported food products. In order to keep up the supply of fresh produce, subsistence farmers grow more than is required for immediate family use, using the surplus to sell or exchange in markets.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, FOOD: Torembi, GARDENS, GEOGRAPHY, SHIFTING CULTIVATION, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)

44. FORESTRY

75% of Papua New Guinea is covered by rainforests which contain many tree varieties of commercial export value as logs, sawn timber, raw materials for quality furniture or woodchips. This natural resource represents significant economic potential for industrial development. However, there are problems in accessing the timber as it difficult and expensive to build roads to transport it. More significantly still, there are grave environmental concerns regarding the impact of industrial scale logging, especially if no large-scale reforestation program is established, or if controls are not put in place on export quantity and quality. The consequences could be disastrous for PNG’s environment and mean short term benefits for some, at the expense of long-term problems for others.
The rights of local landowners to fair returns for logging on their traditional land holdings must be considered. Many of the profits gained through logging activities in PNG have also gone to foreign owners and much of the cultural life of forest dwellers is closely linked to the flora and fauna found in the rainforests. Extensive logging has impacts on many different aspects of the people’s lives.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT, GEOGRAPHY)

45. FUNERALS: in Torembi

When people die in Papua New Guinea, special ceremonies mark their transition from this life to the spirit world. In the village of Torembi, in the Sepik region, the body of the individual is first buried on the outskirts of the village, with food and belongings necessary for the journey ahead. Later, a symbolic cremation ceremony is held at which personal possessions are either burnt or offered to the fire. These possessions may include bilums, combs, bowls and other items of individual significance to the deceased person.
Another public ceremony is held in the evening of the same day as the symbolic cremation, with women and children inside one house, and men in a nearby haus tambaran. An effigy of the deceased person is prepared in advance and set up in a screened-off area. The mourners bow down before this and make offerings. There are also official mourners, traditionally covered in white clay, who lead the mourning as the spirit of the deceased joins those of his or her ancestors.
(Related entries: CRY SONGS, HAUS TAMBARAN)

46. GARDENS: in Torembi

All over Papua New Guinea, people maintain gardens which provide them with much of their food supply. This is especially so away from towns and cities. Every family in Torembi, in the Sepik region, for instance, has a garden. Small clearings are made in flood-free sections of the nearby forest, and fences protect crops from foraging pigs. Commonly grown foods include tropical fruits, green vegetables, sugar cane, corn, onions, peanuts, taro and yams. Tobacco is also grown. The right to work in and harvest from a garden comes with family connections. At her marriage, a woman gains the right to use the lands of her husband’s clan, and this right continues even after her husband’s death.
(Related entries: LAND OWNERSHIP, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)

47. GEOGRAPHY

Papua New Guinea is 160 kilometres north of the northernmost tip of Queensland, and a few degrees south of the Equator. It is a land of deep valleys and highlands, open savanna, dense rainforests, mangrove swamps and islands. One quarter of the country is over a kilometre high, with several mountains rising to over 4 kilometres above sea level.
Geographically, PNG is quite a young country, located between Australia’s stable land mass and the more mobile Pacific ocean basin. Throughout the country there are numerous hot springs and at least one hundred volcanoes, some still active. Earth tremors and earthquakes are reasonably common.
The Central Ranges form the ‘backbone’ of PNG, from which many vast rivers flow to the sea. The largest of these are the Sepik and the Fly. The Fly is so large that it carries more fresh water than all of Australia’s rivers combined.
PNG’s multitude of islands include New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville and the Admiralty Islands. Many are small, but some are hundreds of kilometres in length.
Differences in landforms and accessibility within the country have been significant in developing and maintaining an extraordinary, rich diversity of peoples and cultures, as well as flora and fauna, over thousands of years.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, LANGUAGE, VOLCANOES)

48. GOVERNMENT: - Local and provincial

Papua New Guinea is divided into nineteen provinces. These evolved from the administrative districts which operated under Australian colonial rule prior to PNG’s independence.
In each province, an elected provincial government was established to provide services efficiently at the local level. The provincial government is the middle tier of government and manages most of the day-to-day services such as health, education, agriculture and business development. There are also local government councils, which typically represent a number of villages. They are responsible for such things as maintenance of bridges, roads, buildings, water supply and the provision of other community services.
Although PNG has a democratically elected national government, traditional, village-based politics are still significant. Power has never been hereditary. Instead, the leader or 'big man' might be an effective speaker who can convince the rest of the village to follow him, or he might gain power through his generosity, or his wealth in land and pigs, which are valued currency in traditional PNG society.
There are few women in positions of power. While equality between men and women is written into the national constitution, in reality, power remains largely in the hands of men, who have by tradition dominated village politics and decision making.
There are two traditions which sometimes conflict with the aims of organised governments. The payback system, in which, following an offence against someone, their relatives demand violent retribution or the payment of money or pigs, and the wantok system which demands loyalty to family and to language group above other loyalties.
(Related entries: GOVERNMENT: National, PAYBACK, PROVINCES, WANTOK)

49. GOVERNMENT: National

Partly because of its colonial past, Papua New Guinea’s style of government, when it became independent, was based on both the Australian and the British systems. The British sovereign is the Head of State and is represented by the Governor-General. There are three levels of government: national, provincial and local. Members of Parliament are elected by popular vote. All adults are eligible to vote from the age of 18. The Prime Minister is chosen by the majority in Parliament, and appointed by the Governor-General. The elected party has a five-year term of office.
Because of the diversity of languages, ballot papers display pictures of the candidates. Once voting is completed, counting them is difficult as many of the polling booths are so isolated.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT: Local and provincial, INDEPENDENCE, NATIONAL CAPITAL, NATIONAL FLAG, PARLIAMENT HOUSE, POLITICAL SYSTEM)

50. HAUS MARIT

Haus marit is the Pidgin word for the home of a married couple.
(Related entries: HAUS 'N BOI, MARRIAGE, PIDGIN, WEDDINGS)

51. HAUS 'N BOI
Haus 'n boi is the local euphemism for the men’s ceremonial house which is more correctly called the haus tambaran. The haus 'n boi is the province of men only. Women are not permitted inside.
A liklik (or little) haus ’n boi is a small shelter built to one side of a haus marit, where the man of the house (and his teenage sons, if any) can talk with friends free from interruption. The men will often sleep here. They will also have a bed in the haus tambaran.
(Related entries: HAUS MARIT, HAUS TAMBARAN)

52. HAUS SIK

Haus sik is the Pidgin word for hospital. When used in the village of Torembi, it refers to the local medical clinic where nursing staff and medical aides can treat minor ailments and injuries. The Torembi haus sik has a special focus on the health of babies and young children. The mortality rate of very young children is very high in Torembi and all over Papua New Guinea, with illnesses such as gastric problems and malaria taking a high toll. Lack of clean water poses a particular threat to health.
At the twice-weekly baby health clinic, babies are regularly weighed, vaccinated and checked for general wellbeing as well as normal growth and development. The haus sik is at the Torembi mission, which is up to an hour’s walk from the village, over muddy paths and slippery bridges. However, as many women in Torembi have lost a number of babies to illness, the clinic is a very busy place where women may have to wait several hours to be seen.
(Related entry: HEALTH, MALARIA, TOREMBI)

53. HAUS TAMBARAN

Elaborate architecture is common in Papua New Guinea, and perhaps the best-known example is the haus tambaran, or spirit house, of the Sepik region.
The haus tambaran has traditionally been the main focus of village life, and the care taken in its construction and decoration shows its importance and the special status of those who built it. The haus tambaran is the province of men only and a declaration of the sacred knowledge which only men are privileged to know.
There, men take decisions about the village after prolonged debate in which a special debating stool is used.
The haus tambaran is decorated with the faces of ancestor spirits and with totems of village clans. In the village of Torembi, one of the clan totems is the tarragaw or sea eagle. Outside the haus tambaran there is a large dancing ground, a sacred site where celebrations and ceremonies involving the whole community traditionally take place. Once, this area would have been decorated with the remains of enemies killed in battle, placed there in celebration of victory. Today, the decorations are likely to relate to the spirits of the community groups represented in the haus tambaran.
Personal possessions belonging to the men are stored inside the haus tambaran, as well as ceremonial masks and sacred musical instruments.
There are usually two spirit houses in each village, one for each of the two moieties or groups of clans into which a tribe is divided. In Torembi, one moiety is connected to the spirits of the earth, the other to the spirits of the sky.
In PNG the men’s role has changed significantly. The defence of the village, traditionally their responsibility, is no longer a high priority. The haus tambaran is a place where men now spend many hours together during the day. The workload of women, however, has changed very little.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, DEBATING STOOL, RELIGION, VILLAGE LIFE)

54. HEALTH
Health care is provided by both government and non-government agencies. There are large hospitals in the major centres and many smaller hospitals and clinics in provincial towns. The Papua New Guinean health care system places a strong emphasis on providing primary care at the local level, particularly in rural areas. Common health problems in PNG include insect-borne diseases such as malaria and infectious or contagious diseases such as pneumonia, respiratory infections, skin diseases and diarrhoea. Pneumonia and malaria are the leading causes of death. In recent times, the threat of typhoid fever has also emerged. Both maternal and infant mortality rates are relatively high.
The national government has an organised malaria control program which focuses on reducing the population of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. The government also supports national vaccination programs for children. Lack of clean water and inadequate systems for disposal of human waste, both problems throughout the country, lead to gastric and other conditions, especially in young children. Another local health problem is caused by the common habit of chewing betel nut mixed with lime. While the betel nut is not in itself dangerous, mixing it with lime can cause dental problems and, in the most serious cases, cancer in the mouth. The Papua New Guinea Government supports education programs which discourage the practice of mixing the two.
(Related entries: HAUS SIK, MALARIA, MOSQUITOES, POPULATION)

55. HISTORY: early from 50 000 years ago to 1800s

It is estimated that people first came to Papua New Guinea over 50 000 years ago, probably by boat from the islands to the west. At that time the area was much colder and there was no sea dividing what is now the island of New Guinea from the Australian mainland. Stone axes have been found which are up to 40 000 years old. By around 30 000 years ago, people were moving into the highlands and cultivating crops, using fire to clear parts of the forest and digging ditches to carry water.
The people of PNG were among the first gardeners in the world and, when they started growing their own food, it was also the start of village life.
Generally, men and women lived in separate houses with the men’s time devoted to the defence of the village. From an early age, boys learned to make and use bows, arrows, spears and shields, as well as building houses, making gardens and — importantly — learning to fight. Girls and young boys lived with the women, who were responsible for tending gardens and domestic animals, food preparation and food gathering.
(Related entry: HISTORY: recent)

56. HISTORY: recent — 1800s to present

Isolated by the rugged landscape, the people of Papua New Guinea and its many surrounding islands developed hundreds of different languages and dialects, with great variety in religions and cultural expression. The coastal areas were visited by many European traders over the years, especially during the nineteenth century, and there was also contact with people from the many neighbouring islands, for example, those now part of Indonesia.
In 1848 the Dutch claimed the western part of the island. The eastern half was split in two when Germany annexed the north, and Britain the south. With their superior weapons, these foreign invaders defeated any villagers who opposed them.
In the 1870s, European missionaries began to establish themselves around what is now Port Moresby. In 1884, the British declared the Papuan region of what is now Papua New Guinea a British protectorate, introducing laws and making Port Moresby its administrative centre. In 1906 Britain handed over Papua’s administration to the Australian government.
During World War I, Australia occupied German New Guinea, but temporarily lost it to the Japanese in World War II. After the war, Papua New Guinea was returned to the trusteeship of Australia by the United Nations in 1946. In 1975, PNG became an independent parliamentary democracy.
(Related entries: EUROPEAN COLONISATION, HISTORY: early, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea)

57. HOUSING: in Torembi

Housing in Papua New Guinea differs from region to region, depending upon climate and building materials available from the local environment. For example, houses in the Sawos village of Torembi are made with local materials and designed for protection from both hot sun and frequent heavy rain. Wood from nearby forests is tied together with strips of cane, kanda, for the frame. Sago leaves, folded and pinned together, form shingles of thatch for the roof, morota. Planks spilt from trunks of limbum palms provide flooring. Walls are made from stems of large sago palm leaves, pangal. The houses are usually long, single-roomed structures with doors at each end. They are built above the ground, on posts, to avoid the damp. The covered space beneath the house serves as an area for domestic pigs and chickens. There are no chimneys and smoke from cooking fires finds its way out through the roof or the spaces above the walls which allow air to circulate. Fires are set on a thick, hardened clay hearth.
(Related entries: HAUS’ N BOI, HAUS MARIT, HAUS TAMBARAN, TOREMBI, VILLAGE LIFE)
58. HUMIDITY

Papua New Guinea is one of the cloudiest countries in the world. Moisture-laden winds are constantly blowing over the coast from the warm tropical seas, so that the atmosphere is almost always humid. There are frequent thunderstorms, especially in the more mountainous areas.
In the Sawos village of Torembi, in the lower Sepik region, there is often a fog at sunrise, which disappears as the sun rises, and skies clear by late morning. Clouds begin to build up in the afternoon and there is often a thunderstorm around four or five o’clock in the afternoon.
(Related entries: CLIMATE, GEOGRAPHY, RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE)

59. INDEPENDENCE

Immediately prior to independence, Papua New Guinea was the Australian Territory of New Guinea, under the administration of the Australian federal government. After World War II, Australia began to assist PNG to prepare for self-government. The present system of government, in the form of the First House of Assembly, was set up in 1964 with a mix of appointed and elected members. The Second House of Assembly was set up in 1968 with ten appointed members as well as an increasing number of elected members. In 1972, when the Third House of Assembly was elected, a new Constitution was drafted. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 October 1973, and finally became a fully independent nation on 16 September 1975.
The first prime minister was Michael Somare. He had been the Chief Minister of a democratically elected government in 1972, leading the nation to self-government in 1973 and finally to independence in 1975.
Papua New Guinea is a member of the British Commonwealth, with the reigning British monarch as Head of State, represented by an appointed Governor-General.
(Related entries: GOVERNMENT: National, HISTORY: recent, POLITICAL SYSTEM)

60. INITIATION - into adulthood

The transition from childhood to adulthood has traditionally been celebrated and formalised in Papua New Guinea through initiation ceremonies. In the Sepik region, boys are initiated within the haus tambaran, where initiated men pass on special and secret knowledge.
In times past in Papua New Guinea, many Christian missionaries discouraged initiation, considering it to be sinful, and for some time initiation was less common. However, in some places these practices are being revived as a way of reasserting traditional culture.
Less is known about the initiation of girls into womanhood, which occurs within Sawos society, in areas around Torembi. The practice is apparently not as widespread as the initiation of boys.
(Related entries: BILAS, HAUS TAMBARAN, RELIGION)

61. IRIAN JAYA

Papua New Guinea occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea whilst Irian Jaya occupies the western half. Irian Jaya was formerly Dutch New Guinea, until annexation by Indonesia in 1969. It is the largest of Indonesia’s provinces and rich in natural resources.
The indigenous population of Irian Jaya is Melanesian, as are the majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens. The province, like Papua New Guinea, is characterised by great diversity in language and culture. Large numbers of Indonesian settlers have moved into the area over recent years. The political situation within Irian Jaya is volatile, with many people from the indigenous community unhappy with Indonesian sovereignty and its local administration.
(Related entries: HISTORY: Recent, MELANESIA)

62. KINA

The kina is the main unit of currency in Papua New Guinea. It is a large coin with a hole in the centre. A kina is divided into one hundred equal parts, each called a toea. The names kina and toea, recall two types of special shells which were traditionally used as money in Papua New Guinea.
Banknotes come in a number of denominations including K20, K10, K5 and K2. Banknotes and coins display designs which show aspects of Papua New Guinea life, history and culture. In February, 2000, K10 was worth approximately $5.00 Australian.
(Related entries: ECONOMY, MARKETS, MONEY)

63. LAE

Lae is Papua New Guinea’s second largest city, situated on the north eastern coast of the main island. It is the administrative and business centre of the Morobe province and is the nation’s commercial, manufacturing and shipping centre. It has a deep water port which enables all kinds of shipping to utilise its facilities. Lae has a very significant role in trade and industry for Papua New Guinea.
(Related entries: CLIMATE, MANUFACTURING, PORT MORESBY, PROVINCES)

64. LAND OWNERSHIP: Papua New Guinea

Traditionally, land ownership has been energetically defended and fought for. Conflict about the protection of rights to the use of land, or to extend ownership, was common. Today, the majority of land is still owned by clans according to traditional freehold arrangements. Very little of this land ownership is formally registered.
Ownership of land in Papua New Guinea could be characterised as individuals or families holding the land in trust on behalf of the community. No money or other payment has necessarily changed hands, but ownership is accepted and recognised by the community and carries over from one generation to the next.
Owners of land can allow other family members to use the land and married women are entitled to use the land of their husband’s family. Transfer of land ownership can take place but only after considerable negotiation and payment of compensation. Negotiation to use land for government development or commercial projects requires sensitive handling, taking into account traditional arrangements and their implications for future generations.
If families leave their traditional land holdings and move to other parts of the country, for instance, to pursue employment in urban areas, their relatives sometimes resume their rights to the use of that land. It is difficult to re-establish rights to that land after an absence.
(Related entries: FORESTRY, GARDENS, MARRIAGE, MINING, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)

65. LANGUAGE

The people of Papua New Guinea, separated from each other by the rugged terrain, have developed a diverse range of languages and cultures. Over 700 languages and dialects are spoken in Papua New Guinea: the most diverse and numerous of any country in the world.
Hiri Motu, which is spoken in the area around the capital, Port Moresby, is the most widely used local language. The use of Pidgin or Tok Pisin is also widespread. It is a mixture of English, German, French and local languages and was originally developed as a language of trade with Europeans in the nineteenth century. It has also proved to be a useful common language for the people of PNG.
The official language of PNG is English, used in international affairs, in government and in education as a language of instruction. Generally speaking, people in Papua New Guinea might speak their local language and perhaps one or two languages used by neighbouring communities, as well as Pidgin and some English, depending upon how much formal education they have received.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, EDUCATION, PIDGIN, WANTOK)

66. LEGAL SYSTEM

The legal system of Papua New Guinea is based on the Australian system, which in turn is based on the English system. The Supreme Court is the highest in the land and the final court of appeal. There are also national, district, local and village courts. At the lowest level, village courts hear cases such as robbery or assault. Magistrates who operate these courts are selected from local communities. Hearings in the higher courts are conducted in English.
(Related entry: POLITICAL SYSTEM)

67. MALARIA

Malaria is a common health problem in Papua New Guinea, especially in areas such as the Sepik provinces where mosquitoes, which carry the disease, breed in huge numbers near the river and its many tributaries. Malaria causes intermittent and recurring fevers. Many people die of malaria in Papua New Guinea and it is especially dangerous to young children. Netting, made from the same sort of bush string as is used in the making of bilums, can be hung around beds to prevent mosquitoes from biting at night. Cotton mosquito nets can also be purchased, though these can be expensive. New strains of malaria are appearing which are resistant to the existing treatments. This adds a degree of urgency to the need to reduce mosquito populations and for research into inexpensive treatments for malaria. Current medication is too expensive for most people in PNG.
(Related entries: BILUM, HAUS SIK, HEALTH, MOSQUITOES)

68. MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing makes up a small percentage of Papua New Guinea’s overall industrial profile. Most manufacturing is in consumer goods, such as furniture, processed food, beer, soft drinks and cigarettes.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FISHING, FORESTRY, MINING)

69. MARKETS: in Torembi

Local markets are an important source of food and goods in Papua New Guinea. For example, there are three markets attended by people from around the Torembi area. On Tuesdays a market is held on the banks of a lagoon close to the Sepik River, at some distance from Torembi, and a second market is held on Thursdays alongside a small stream halfway between Torembi and the Sepik. Women from the Sepik villages arrive by canoe, while those from Torembi and neighbouring communities walk in. They come to exchange vegetables and sago for fish. Little or no money changes hands at this market as barter is the traditional way to trade.
Every Sunday there is a local market held after church, beside the airstrip at the Torembi Mission. At this market, goods are bought and sold for cash instead of being exchanged. Selling items at this market is one way in which women can earn money.
(Related entries: BARTER and EXCHANGE, ECONOMY, GARDENS, KINA, MONEY)

70. MARRIAGE: Sawos

In Sawos society, marriage to a member of the same clan is not permitted. When a man invites a woman from another clan to be his wife, her family requires compensation, commonly known as a bride price. While the bride price is being gathered, which can take some time, a young couple often live together at the house of the groom’s father, but before doing so must ask permission at meetings involving elders from both their clans. It is common for a couple to have one or two children by the time the official wedding ceremony takes place.
Once the marriage has been formalised, the bride is considered part of her husband’s family, rather than her birth family. She gains rights to use the land and gardens of her husband’s clan, and this right continues even if her husband dies.
Women’s songs, which form part of the marriage celebrations, tell of the trials and tribulations which face married women. For women, married life carries a great deal of responsibility — food production and preparation which involves sago scraping at least three times a week, tending the garden and care of domestic animals, as well as the care of children and general housework. If a man is widowed, he will usually remarry, as a woman’s contribution in the marriage partnership is essential. If a woman is widowed, remarriage is less likely, as she has access to the land of her husband’s clan to provide her and her children with food and some income. In the past, it was not unusual for men to have more than one wife, but this custom is rarely followed now.
(Related entries: BRIDE PRICE, CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, SAGO SCRAPING, WOMEN)

71. MELANESIA

The majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens are Melanesian. Melanesia is a large geographic area which includes many of the islands of the south-west Pacific — the island of New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and the western islands of Fiji among many others. Polynesia lies to the east and Micronesia to the north.
Melanesian Pidgin, Tok Pisin, is a language which developed in the late nineteenth century as a language of trade in the region.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, PIDGIN)

72. MINING

The mining industry plays an important role in Papua New Guinea’s overall economy. PNG has rich deposits of natural resources including gold, copper ore, silver and oil. Even in the late nineteenth century prospectors were drawn to PNG in search of gold, which was found in considerable amounts.
Mining is the industry sector which is generally believed to have the greatest potential for PNG’s successful and sustainable development. However, as huge copper and gold mines have been carved out of the land, concerns have been raised about the resulting pollution of the environment and the loss of traditional lands.
Foreign-owned mining companies often provide transport, health and education services as part of their local development initiatives. Companies must enter into complex and sensitive negotiations with local landowners. Companies can expect to renegotiate agreements over time with subsequent generations of the landowning families.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT, FORESTRY, LAND OWNERSHIP, TOURISM)

73. MISSION: Torembi

The village of Torembi, in the lower Sepik area, is in a region of Papua New Guinea which is part of the missionary program of the Catholic Church. The first missionaries moved into the area in 1933 and the mission station in Torembi was established in 1950. It was built in a grass-covered clearing suitable for an airstrip and comprised a church, health clinic, post office, air freight service and school. The airstrip is important not only to the Church, but to the local community, with flights landing there almost daily. The majority of Torembi residents are Catholic. In recent times the priests have been Australian or American and the church deacon a local Torembi man. Many of the light aircraft pilots are missionaries from overseas.
(Related entries: CHRISTIANITY, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea, RELIGION)

74. MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea

In the late nineteenth century the European colonial powers divided the island of New Guinea into a number of areas, each governed by a colonial power. What is now Irian Jaya was governed by the Dutch and what is now Papua New Guinea was divided between Britain and Germany. Along with the colonial administrators came missionaries from a variety of Christian churches. As European administrators and traders ventured further into the country, missionaries followed.
Missionary activity was especially significant after World War II when many missionaries moved into previously restricted areas. Like other foreign influences, the coming of Christianity to New Guinea brought many changes, both positive and negative. Historically, a great deal of work has been done by missionaries, particularly in health and education, and in some cases the provision of employment.
Before World War II virtually all schools throughout what is now Papua New Guinea were established and run by missions with little or no government assistance. There have, however, been problems which inevitably arise when the differing values, beliefs and social systems of cultures meet, and sometimes clash. The majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens are now officially Christian, though many aspects of traditional beliefs and culture are maintained.
(Related entries: BILAS, CHRISTIANITY, INITIATION, MISSION: Torembi, RELIGION)

75. MONEY

In the past, people in Papua New Guinea used items of value as money. This money would be used in transactions other than those involving barter. For instance, large pearl-coloured oyster shells called kina were used to pay for things in the Highlands and on the Sepik. And in Milne Bay Province, white armshells called toea were exchanged between men of importance. Other items of value used as money included cowrie shells, boar's tusks, necklaces made of dog's teeth or shells and seeds, clay pots, other tools and live pigs.
Today, banknotes and coins are used. Before Independence, foreign countries which governed Papua New Guinea used their own currency. Since Independence in 1975, Papua New Guinea has had its own banknotes and coins. The main unit of currency is called the kina. A kina is divided into one hundred equal parts, each called a toea. People still use barter at village or local markets in order to obtain goods, especially, food items. But the currency of kina and toea is at the basis of the national economy.
(Related entries: BARTER AND EXCHANGE, ECONOMY, KINA)

76. MOSQUITOES

Mosquitoes are a variety of gnat. The female punctures the skin of humans and animals to suck blood. In doing so, some species of mosquitoes also transmit disease. The World Health Organisation estimates that between 1.5 and 2.7 million people die of malaria worldwide each year. The great majority of these deaths are in Africa, but malaria is also the most common mosquito-borne disease in Papua New Guinea. Mosquitoes also carry other diseases which pose a serious threat to health, such as dengue fever. Mosquitoes breed in their millions in tropical climates with hot, humid conditions, and especially in warm, swampy environments such as those in the lower reaches of the great rivers, for example, the swamps surrounding the village of Torembi.
(Related entries: HAUS SIK, HEALTH, MALARIA)

MUSIC: Sawos

Music has a role in all the celebrations and rituals, secular and religious, that are a part of the daily lives of the Sawos people. Music, singing and dance are woven into the work of the women in particular, as well as into story-telling and social events.
Music is an important part of the ceremonies which mark significant life events: marriage, death and the passage from childhood to manhood.
Nowadays most villages also have their own string band, usually made up of teenagers, and they play in competition with other villages. Contemporary local and foreign music is also heard through the radio broadcasting services.
(Related entries: CRY SONGS, DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS : Sawos, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed, SAGO SONGS, SAWOS)

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos

Anthropologists and musicologists categorise instruments according to which part of the instrument vibrates to make the sound. Instruments with vibrating strings are called chordophones; instruments which themselves vibrate are called idiophones; instruments which rely on the movement of air are called aerophones; instruments which use some kind of membrane stretched across an opening are called membranophones.
In Sawos music, instruments from all these categories are used. Instruments are made from local raw materials: bamboo, the sago palm and local hardwoods. Drums are an important feature of Sawos music and communication. Made from local hardwoods, drums are used to communicate across distances and throughout villages.
Particular instruments, such as the garamut drums and the long flutes, are said to be the voices of the spirits and their sound indicates the presence of those spirits. They are kept in the haus tambaran. Since the men of the Sawos are the keepers of religious rites and ceremonies, only adult, initiated men are allowed to see, handle and play these instruments.
Other instruments, such as the kundu drums and Jew’s harp, susap, are used for recreational purposes. Many Sawos instruments are tuned to be played in pairs, sharing the melody between two players.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, FLUTES, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Stringed, SAWOS)

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos - Stringed

The musical bow, pangal sak sak, is a chordophone. It is made from the stalk of a sago palm leaf and is played by striking the string with two pieces of hardwood at various positions.
The Jew’s harp, susap, is also a chordophone, because it uses the principle of a 'string' vibrating in the mouth of the player. It is a traditional instrument used for recreational music.
(Related entries: DRUMS: Garamut, DRUMS: Kundu, DRUMS: Water, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos, SAWOS)

NATIONAL CAPITAL

The capital of Papua New Guinea is Port Moresby. It is situated on the southern coast in the rain shadow of the Owen Stanley Ranges. Port Moresby receives little rain and is very dry in June-August, but green and lush during the monsoon season, November-April. The annual rainfall is 1 195 mm and the average daily maximum temperature is 32° Celsius.
Moresby was named by the British captain, John Moresby, who mapped the southern coastline and sailed into the bay around which the city is now built, in 1873. He named the harbour after his father, Admiral Sir Fairfax Moresby. Port Moresby, as it was later called, is the centre for the national Parliament and is also PNG’s second most important port. The harbour is always busy with shipping traffic.
(Related entries: NATIONAL EMBLEM, NATIONAL FLAG, PORT MORESBY)

81. NATIONAL EMBLEM

The bird of paradise is the national emblem of Papua New Guinea. It is shown perched on a traditional kundu drum and a spear, each having strong symbolic associations to different parts of the country.
(Related entries: BIRDS OF PARADISE, NATIONAL FLAG)

82. NATIONAL FLAG

The Papua New Guinea flag is based on a design done originally by a school girl. It shows a bird of paradise flying above the Southern Cross. This symbolises both PNG’s status as a young, developing country and its long association with Australia, whose flag also features the Southern Cross.
(Related entries: BIRDS OF PARADISE, NATIONAL EMBLEM)

83. PALM OIL

Because of its high rainfall, Papua New Guinea has excellent growing conditions for the cultivation of oil palms and hence for the production of the important commercial agricultural product palm oil. Palm oil is extracted from the fruit of the oil palm and is used in the production of cooking oils, margarines, confectionery fats, shortening and other related food products. It is also used in the production of soaps. The commercial production of palm oil has shown consistent growth in Papua New Guinea’s agricultural sector as an important export item. It is the only agricultural export product which is processed locally, and represents around 10% of PNG’s agricultural exports.
(Related entries: AGRICULTURE, CACAO, COCONUTS AND COPRA, COFFEE, DEVELOPMENT)

84. PARLIAMENT HOUSE

Papua New Guinea’s Parliament House in Port Moresby is an impressive building. It is an excellent example of the use of contemporary art on public buildings and many contemporary artists and craftspeople were involved in its design and construction.
Materials which last longer than the bark, fibres and wood used traditionally were used, but traditional styles and decorative motifs were incorporated into the design.
Both the building itself and its decorative facade were designed to reflect the cultural diversity and rich artistic heritage of the hundreds of tribal and language groups in PNG.
The two central figures used on the facade are a man and a woman in ceremonial bilas or body decoration. The figures symbolise the fact that equal rights have been written into the constitution.
The shape of Parliament House echoes that of a haus tambaran, where the men of the village meet to make decisions and hold debates. So the traditional use of a haus tambaran is similar to the use of the new Parliament House, which is the national house of debate and decision making. To further the analogy, the Speaker’s chair in the new Parliament is shaped like a debating stool from a haus tambaran.
Since foreigners also immediately associate the distinctive shape of the haus tambaran with Papua New Guinea, it has become an important national symbol.
(Related entries: ART: contemporary, DEBATING STOOL, GOVERNMENT: National, HAUS TAMBARAN)

85. PAYBACK

In Papua New Guinea traditional village laws required payback: in essence, revenge for insults or attacks. There are now laws forbidding this, but the tradition is still alive.
Within the payback tradition, following an offence against someone, their relatives demand retribution or payment of money or pigs. The tradition can sometimes override loyalty or responsibility to the wider community and any sense of national identity. Payback is one of two traditions which can sometimes conflict with the ways of behaving encouraged by contemporary governments.
(Related entry: WANTOK)

86. PIDGIN: Tok Pisin

Melanesian Pidgin developed in the late nineteenth century. It was originally a language derived from English, French, German, and some local languages which could be used in trade, in what was then known as New Guinea. Over time, however, it has expanded and become a valuable lingua franca in the modern nation of Papua New Guinea. Lingua franca means a language which can be spoken and understood by people who speak a variety of different languages: a language which provides mutual understanding. As PNG is a nation renowned for its extraordinary linguistic diversity, the use of a lingua franca is especially important. Melanesian Pidgin is sometimes called Tok Pisin. English, which is PNG’s official national language, is also widely used in business, government and education.
(Related entries: CULTURE: diversity, LANGUAGE, WANTOK)

87. PIGS

Pigs play an important role in village economies in Papua New Guinea. They are valued as a sign of wealth and as a prized possession. The number of pigs owned by a man is an indicator of his power and influence. Pigs can be used as gifts or items of exchange, especially in negotiations such as for bride price or payback. They are also a source of food, though usually at special celebrations rather than as part of the daily diet. At the celebration of a wedding feast, portions of the specially slaughtered and cooked pig are carefully distributed in proportion to the various contributions made to the raising of the bride price.
Pigs are not native to Papua New Guinea. They, along with dogs and chickens, were introduced into the country.
(Related entries: FLORA AND FAUNA, MONEY, PAYBACK, WEDDINGS)

88. POLITICAL SYSTEM

Papua New Guinea is a parliamentary democracy. The Head of State is the British monarch who is represented by a Governor-General. The national Parliament is headed by a National Executive Council chaired by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is elected by Parliament. All members of the Parliament are elected by the people of Papua New Guinea. Citizens are eligible to vote at the age of 18, and there are numerous political parties, including the People’s Progress Party, Pangu Pati (Papua New Guinea United Party), People’s Democratic Movement and many others.
(Related entries: GOVERNMENT: local and provincial, GOVERNMENT: national, LEGAL SYSTEM)

89. POPULATION

In 1998, the population of Papua New Guinea was estimated to be about four million people. Around 40% of the population is aged 14 years or younger, as compared to 21% for the same age group in Australia. The birth rate is considerably higher than for Australia, but infant mortality rates are high too. The rate of population growth in 1998 was about 2.25% per annum; in Australia in the same period population growth was only 0.93%.
The population is widely distributed, with around 40% living in the highlands and the remaining 60% in relatively flatter regions, including coastal, coral reef and river delta areas. The majority of the population lives in villages in rural areas, supporting themselves by agriculture.
Collection of census data is difficult in Papua New Guinea because of the mountainous terrain, scattered population and myriad languages.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, LANGUAGE)

90. PORT MORESBY

Port Moresby is the national capital of Papua New Guinea. It is situated on the southern coast in the rain shadow of the Owen Stanley Ranges. Port Moresby receives little rain and is very dry mid-year, but green and lush during the monsoon season. The annual rainfall is 1 195 mm and the average daily maximum temperature is 32 degrees Celsius.
Port Moresby was named by Captain John Moresby, the first foreigner to sail into the harbour around which the city is now built, in 1873. When he arrived, Motu and Koita people lived in the area, fishing, hunting and trading. Today, Port Moresby is the centre for the national Parliament.
(Related entries: NATIONAL CAPITAL, PARLIAMENT HOUSE)

91. PROVINCES

There are nineteen provinces in Papua New Guinea, as well as the National Capital District. Each province has its own provincial government which is funded by the national government. Provincial administrations are responsible for functions including health, education, town planning, capital works and maintenance and business development. The Sawos village of Torembi is in the East Sepik province. The provinces are East Sepik, West Sepik (Sanduan), Eastern Highlands, Western Highlands, Southern Highlands, North Solomons (Bougainville), Central, Simbu, East New Britain, Enga, Gulf, Madang, Milne Bay, New Ireland, Northern (Oro), Western (Fly), West New Britain, Manus and Morobe.
(Related entries: EASTERN HIGHLANDS, GOVERNMENT: Local and Provincial, SEPIK REGION)

92. RAINFALL

Most of Papua New Guinea receives heavy rainfall. The wettest areas are the south coast of New Britain, Bougainville Island and the area around the city of Lae. Here, up to 9 000 millimetres of rain can fall in a year. Port Moresby, the capital, is much drier, receiving only around 1 000 millimetres per annum.
The Sawos village of Torembi lies on the plains between two mountain ranges, so it is not continually wet like the provincial capital, Wewak. Torembi receives a lot of rain between December and April, but is drier in the middle of the year.
(Related entries: CLIMATE, HUMIDITY, TEMPERATURE)

93. RELIGION

The people of Papua New Guinea have a diverse cultural heritage and a similarly rich and complex spiritual heritage. The honouring of ancestors, the significance of the haus tambaran or spirit house and the secret knowledge available to initiated men, the strength of clan and moiety connections with their totem representations and associated responsibilities are all integral and essential parts of clan and community life. These beliefs are expressed through art, design, ceremony and architecture and are all integral parts of village life.
During the late nineteenth century, and throughout the twentieth century, Christian missionaries were very active throughout the country. Today, the majority of Papua New Guinea’s citizens are officially Christian. There are representative groups of most Christian religious communities, from Catholic to Lutheran, Anglican to Seventh Day Adventist, and many others. However, many aspects of traditional spiritual beliefs remain strong in contemporary life, manifesting themselves in daily life — in village decision making, in ceremonies and rituals, and in expressive arts.
(Related entries: CHRISTIANITY, MISSIONS: Papua New Guinea, MISSION: Torembi)

94. RESOURCES

Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources. There are extensive mineral deposits, including gold and copper. There are large reserves of oil and natural gas and vast, rich supplies of marine life. Extensive forests contain valuable timber. Environmental concerns about commercial exploitation of all these resources are significant, as using any of these natural resources on a large scale can cause significant negative impacts on the environment and on local people.
(Related entries: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY, FISHING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, MINING)

95. RIVERS

The main island of Papua New Guinea is traversed by four major rivers. The best known is probably the mighty Sepik which flows north from the Central Highlands. The Fly, which also carries vast amounts of water, flows south from the same Highlands, and the Ramu and Markham are to the north-east and east respectively. Both the Sepik and Fly rivers are navigable for great distances, making them significant traditional trade and communication links. There are numerous lakes in the delta areas which have formed where the rivers have deposited silt carried down by the waters from the Highlands. Mangrove swamps have formed in tidal areas. Sago swamps are common in the territory of the Sawos.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, SEPIK RIVER)

96. SAGO: Sawos

Sago is the staple food in the Sawos diet. It is harvested from the sago palm, or sak sak, which flourishes in swampy woodlands near the Sepik River and its tributaries. Women harvest and process the sago, which is cooked into pancakes. These are produced largely for human consumption, but also provide additional food for domestic pigs.
(Related entries: FOOD: Torembi, SAGO PALM, SAGO SCRAPING, SAGO SONGS)

97. SAGO PALM: Sawos

The sago palm, or sak sak as it is known locally, flourishes in low-lying swampy woodlands not far from the Sepik River and its tributaries. The sago palm has a trunk covered in protective sharp spines. The fibres within its trunk contain sago starch, the basic foodstuff used by the Sawos people. The stalks of the sago palm fronds, known as pangal, are used in building the walls of houses and in the production of stringed musical instruments and the leaves for roof thatching and ‘grass skirts’.
(Related entries: CLOTHING, HOUSING, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Sawos – Stringed, SAGO, SAGO SCRAPING, SAGO SONGS, VEGETATION: Torembi)

98. SAGO SCRAPING: Sawos

Sago scraping is part of the harvesting and processing of sago. In the Sepik lowlands, sago scraping is the work of women and involves scraping the inside of the trunk of a sago palm to loosen and break up the fibres. These fibres are then washed to extract the actual sago, using a series of sediment traps made from palm leaves and a strainer of coconut matting. Sago scraping is laborious and time-consuming work. Using bamboo scrapers and machetes, women sometimes work in groups. Some women who are especially proficient prefer to work alone. Typically, Sawos women must scrape sago three times a week to harvest enough for their family’s needs, as well as providing extra to be used in exchange for other goods at local markets. Women often sing sago songs as they work to maintain the necessary rhythm.
(Related entries: BILUM, SAGO, SAGO PALM, SAGO SONGS)

99. SAGO SONGS: Sawos

The main foodstuff of the Sawos is sago, which is harvested and prepared by the village women. As part of the harvesting process, the fibres inside the trunk of the sago palm must be broken up with bamboo scrapers and machetes. During this arduous work the women sing improvised songs, sago songs, accompanying themselves with the percussive sound of their beaters.
(Related entries: MUSIC, SAGO, SAGO PALM, SAGO SCRAPING)

100. SAWOS

The people of Papua New Guinea belong to many diverse groups, each with its own territory, languages and forms of cultural expression. One of the largest groups in the Sepik area is the Sawos, their land covering a great part of the middle Sepik lowlands. The Sawos are Melanesian people who have lived in this area for thousands of years.
Their lives have always centred on the village and on connections within the village community, based on the membership of clans. Being a member of a clan gives a person an identity and a sense of belonging.
(Related entries: SEPIK REGION, TOREMBI, VILLAGE RELATIONSHIPS, VILLAGE LIFE,WANTOK)

101. SCHOOL: Torembi

There is a primary school at the Torembi mission. The great majority of parents encourage their children to attend. Children come to the school from surrounding villages, some walking for up to an hour to get there. They usually start school at the age of 8 and can move through primary classes at the local level. There is also another school, in Torembi3, which provides only the first two years of elementary school (E1 and E2). The young students go from there to the Torembi mission community school in Grade 3.
The principal and teachers at the local schools are Papua New Guinean. Students sit for an examination in Grade 6 for entry to secondary school, though the number who actually go on is small. Secondary schooling involves the payment of fees, as well as the students leaving their village homes and moving to larger towns, both of which present problems to families in Torembi.
(Related entry: EDUCATION)

102. SEPIK REGION

The catchment area of the massive Sepik River covers 78 000 square kilometres. This region is Papua New Guinea’s most diverse area culturally and linguistically. Almost two hundred languages are spoken there. As well as the Sawos people, there are other large tribal groups in the region, including the Iatmul, Abelam and Murik.
(Related entries: ART: Sepik, SEPIK RIVER)

103. SEPIK RIVER

The Sepik River is one of the two largest rivers in Papua New Guinea and, in terms of volume of water, one of the largest in the world. Its uppermost reaches flow through some of the most isolated areas in the country. Starting in the central mountain range, the Sepik crosses the Irian Jaya border, turns back into PNG, and runs through East Sepik province, where the Sawos people live and the village of Torembi is located.
The Sepik is around 1 100 kilometres long and navigable for almost the entire distance. It provides a valuable channel of communication, allowing different groups of people to share aspects of their cultural and artistic traditions.
It is also a natural trade route. Markets held along its banks have traditionally been a way of exchanging or selling excess produce - sago, yams, fish, prawns, vegetables and betel nut. Artworks, some of which are now made especially for tourists, are also sold here.
However, proximity to the Sepik also brings its problems. Swamps encourage the breeding of millions of mosquitoes which transmit malaria, a serious health problem for the lowland communities. Crocodiles also inhabit the Sepik and often appear as a cultural symbol in artworks and body decoration.
An introduced weed called Salvinia Molesta which can double its size in a couple of days has threatened the river with ecological disaster. Although it is now relatively under control, weeds along the river continue to be a problem and make travelling by canoe difficult in some areas.
(Related entries: CROCODILE, ENVIRONMENT, RIVERS, SEPIK REGION, TOURISM)

104. SHIFTING CULTIVATION

Shifting cultivation is a traditional mode of agriculture used in many parts of the world. It has been especially common in areas where the soil is typically low in fertility and hence low in potential crop growth. The land is first cleared to allow for planting. In some parts, bush is actually burnt to clear the land. The cleared patch is planted and harvested, for one or perhaps two years, until its fertility declines. It is then left to lie fallow and regains its limited fertility over time.
The soil in many parts of Papua New Guinea, including the Sepik region, has limited fertility because of the constant rain which leaches soil nutrients. As inorganic fertilisers are unavailable to people living in villages, new gardens need to be established here each year, while old ones are allowed to recover. When gardens are abandoned the native vegetation flourishes once more, quickly obliterating any trace of cultivation.
(Related entries: GARDENS, LAND OWNERSHIP, SUBSISTENCE FARMING)

105. SINGSING

A singsing is a ceremony which generally involves both significant dancing and the playing of musical instruments. They were traditionally an important part of all family and community celebrations and in times past would have included praise songs for victories in battle. Today, they remain an important element of weddings, communal celebrations and cultural festivals. They are also occasions when traditional forms of bilas, special clothing and body decoration, are worn.
(Related entries: BILAS, CLOTHING, MUSIC: Sawos, WEDDINGS)

106. STAPLE FOODS

The most important food used in any daily diet is called the staple food. In the case of the Sawos people living in Torembi and neighbouring areas, the staple food is sago.
Staple foods vary around the world. They include wheat, corn, sorghum, potatoes, yams, taro and animal products such as meat, milk and eggs. Rice is the staple of the Chinese diet, while cereals are the staple in most African countries.
(Related entries: FOOD: in Torembi, FOOD PRODUCTION, GARDENS, MARKETS, SAGO)

107. SUBSISTENCE FARMING

All rural families in Papua New Guinea engage in subsistence farming to some degree. This is essentially the growing of crops for family use and a variety of crops are grown to ensure a more varied diet. Most families will combine growing crops for the family with some cash crop production to generate income. The choice of cash crops depends on the local environment and climatic conditions. For example, coffee dominates in the Highlands and copra and cacao near the coast.
(Related entry: AGRICULTURE, GARDENS, SHIFTING CULTIVATION)

108. TELECOMMUNICATIONS

A government body called Telikom PNG operates the telecommunications system of Papua New Guinea. With the use of solar-powered microwave transmitters, direct dialling is available to major centres around the country. There are also high-frequency radio services linking remote areas.
Businesses in PNG are generally equipped with facsimile connections and some also have email access. Telecommunication connections are rarely available at the village level. It is difficult to expand the services because of the difficult terrain and also because Telikom would not be able to get sufficient return on their investment, even if they were able to set up telecommunications. International funding is being sought to finance more telecommunication connections in rural and remote areas so that they are not so disadvantaged compared to the cities.
Messages between many villages today are still communicated in the traditional way — using the large garamut drums.
(Related entries: COMMUNICATIONS, DRUMS: Garamut, GEOGRAPHY)

109. TEMPERATURE

Papua New Guinea lies close to the Equator. In the coastal regions and lowlands, temperatures are high all year round. For example, the hottest month in Wewak, the provincial capital of the East Sepik province, averages 27 degrees Celsius and, in the coldest month, 26 degrees Celsius. In the Highlands, though, there is sometimes frost and even snow caps on the mountain peaks. Because of the shelter provided by mountains, there may be marked differences in microclimate from one valley to the next. As is characteristic of equatorial areas, the difference between day and night temperatures is typically much greater than the difference between the hottest and coldest months.
During the wet season in the Sawos village of Torembi, temperatures during the day climb to around 31 degrees Celsius in the afternoon and drop to 24 degrees at night. In the drier season when there is less cloud, the difference is greater still.
(Related entries: CLIMATE, HUMIDITY, RAINFALL)

110. TOREMBI

The village of Torembi lies in the wide flood plain of the Sepik River. Torembi is close to sea level, just 80 kilometres from the coast. It is built alongside the banks of a tributary of the Sepik, known locally as the Kwatit.
The village lies mostly within forest. Lines of houses are built on either side of a walking track which winds through forest and out into grassland. Torembi actually consists of a number of separate villages which are all interrelated. The oldest settlement is Torembi1. It is the largest village, with around one thousand people. As the population grew, groups of families moved further afield to establish new settlements. Torembi 2 has a population of several hundred and Torembi 3 a similar number. There is also Torembi mission, which was built in 1950 in a grassy, level location suitable for the establishment of an airstrip.
(Related entries: MISSION: Torembi, SAWOS, TRANSPORT: Torembi, VEGETATION: Torembi, VILLAGE RELATIONSHIPS, VILLAGE LIFE)

111. TOURISM

Papua New Guinea offers many natural attractions for tourists. These include the diverse and beautiful scenery, variety of culture, opportunities for diving and trekking, river cruises and fascinating flora and fauna in an often pristine natural environment. However, the number of tourists visiting the country is still relatively very low, partly because PNG has a reputation for being a high-risk destination. Those tourists who do travel to PNG typically come from the United States, Japan and Europe. The percentage of tourists from Australia is very small. Most of the tourism so far has been small-scale, specialty tourism.
The industry is small but has the potential to attract visitors to a country which is vibrant with culture and a myriad attractions. Tourism also offers potential as an excellent source of employment opportunities, as people could find work at the local level. In recent times, the Government has invested in wider promotion of the country’s attractions.
(Related entries: CULTURE: Diversity, DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMY)

112. TRANSPORT: Air

The most important mode of transport, for both passengers and freight, within Papua New Guinea is air travel. This is because the country is so mountainous that it is difficult to use road transport. There is an extensive domestic air transport system. The main carrier is the national airline Air Niugini, which also provides international services, but there are numerous other carriers which also provide regular flights to all parts of the country.
Flying light aircraft in PNG presents its own challenges in travelling to remote, often mountainous locations over one of the cloudiest countries in the world.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, TRANSPORT: Road, TRANSPORT: Shipping, TRANSPORT: Torembi)

113. TRANSPORT: Road

There are around 24 000 kilometres of roads in Papua New Guinea, a relatively low road development given the country’s size. The rugged mountain ranges which are so much a part of the country’s landscape have hindered the development of an extensive road network. There are few road connections between regions and provinces.
A highway connects the industrial centre of Lae with Goroka and Mt Hagen in the Highlands. However, there is no major road leading from the capital, Port Moresby, to other parts of the country.
Roads are maintained by local authorities and, away from town centres or relatively developed areas, are often difficult to traverse. These roads usually have a gravel surface, making them difficult or, at times, impossible to use in wet weather. Some taxi services and buses are available, but these are largely restricted to urban areas. Typically, road traffic is moderate and used over short distances.
There is no rail transport system in Papua New Guinea.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, TRANSPORT: Air, TRANSPORT:Shipping, TRANSPORT: Torembi)

114. TRANSPORT: Shipping

Shipping is an important mode of transport in Papua New Guinea. Ships use the seventeen or so general ports which have developed along the coastline of the mainland and surrounding islands, as well as up to 400 private ports and boat landing points. The seventeen major ports are managed by the Papua New Guinea Harbours Board. Shipping is generally confined to the carriage of cargo rather than the provision of passenger services.
PNG’s extensive river system is also widely used for water transport. For instance, the Sepik River is navigable for most of its length, with village people using traditional canoes or, in a few cases, boats with outboard motors as their local form of transport.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, SEPIK RIVER, TRANSPORT: Air, TRANSPORT: Road, TRANSPORT: Torembi)

115. TRANSPORT: Torembi

The village of Torembi is accessible by aeroplane, via an airstrip near the Torembi mission. Locally, people travel on foot using the many well-worn forest paths joining the numerous villages in the area, or use dug-out canoes to travel along the Sepik River and its tributaries. In recent times, outboard motors have been used to speed water travel and carry heavier loads. Large metal barges are also used on the Sepik to move goods around the region.
There are no local government-made roads, only a makeshift road joining the church at Torembi mission with the mission headquarters, further north. This is used by four wheel drive vehicles, but is often impassable in the wet season. The priest from Torembi mission uses a tractor to make this journey.
There are footbridges across the local Kwatit river, a tributary of the Sepik, made of logs floating on the surface of the water which are anchored to trees on the riverbanks by ropes of cane.
(Related entries: SEPIK REGION, SEPIK RIVER, TOREMBI, TRANSPORT: Air, TRANSPORT: Road, TRANSPORT: Shipping, VEGETATION: Torembi)

116. VEGETATION: Torembi

Torembi lies in the wide flood plain of the Sepik, close to sea level, so much of the land is poorly drained. Closest to the river are grassy swamps, while a little further away is swampy woodland where the sago palm flourishes. It’s always hot, often wet and plants grow all the year round. Insects thrive in this environment, especially mosquitoes.
In higher, less waterlogged areas, tropical rainforest grows. Trees grow close together, their crowns touching and forming a dense green canopy. Some of the forest around Torembi has been cleared to build houses and establish vegetable gardens.
Finally, in the highest and driest area away from the river are grasslands, where many flowering plants flourish in the bright sunlight.
(Related entries: FLORA AND FAUNA, SEPIK REGION, SEPIK RIVER)

117. VILLAGE RELATIONSHIPS: Sawos

The lives of people in Papua New Guinea have always centred on the village and on connections within the village community, based on the membership of clans. Being a member of a clan gives a person an identity and a sense of belonging.
In the Sawos village of Torembi, there are thirteen clans, or family groups, each with its own set of totems. Each clan belongs to one of two larger groups called moieties which are made up of clans sharing a common spiritual heritage. The two moieties in Torembi are the Nieme and the Niaui. One is connected to the spirits of the earth, the other to the spirits of the sky. Marriages are possible within moieties but not within clans.
This means that every person from the village of Torembi belongs to a family, which is part of a clan. This clan belongs to one of the two moieties within the larger Sawos tribal group. So, while the Sawos relationships may initially appear quite complex, they are well defined.
These connections have always played and continue to play an important role in everyday life, influencing decision making, land ownership, choice of marriage partners and individual and family obligations to the community.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, PAYBACK, TOREMBI, VILLAGE LIFE, WANTOK)

118. VILLAGE LIFE: Sawos

For the majority of people in Papua New Guinea the village is the focus of life, with its well-defined social relationships and strong traditions. Connections forged through the village are still strong — even when individuals move to larger towns and cities, family, clan and wantok obligations still apply.
In Sawos society, within the village, leadership is taken by a 'big man', someone of influence and power who has gained his position through effective public speaking and positive actions. In days gone by, he would also have been a skilful warrior. Decision making, however, is not just an individual responsibility. Decisions are reached through debate. This debate is restricted to the initiated men and takes place in the haus tambaran. Important life decisions such as arranging to marry are made within the framework of traditional relationships.
(Related entries: BRIDE PRICE, CEREMONIES AND CELEBRATIONS, HAUS TAMBARAN, VILLAGE RELATIONSHIPS, WANTOK, WOMEN)

119. VOLCANOES

There are many volcanoes and hot springs on the island of New Guinea. The area around the city of Rabaul suffers most from volcanic activity. There was a major and devastating eruption there as recently as 1994. There is a vulcanological observatory in Rabaul constantly observing volcanic activity and ready to alert citizens to any impending eruption.
PNG’s volcanoes are part of the ‘ring of fire’ which forms a circle around the edge of the Pacific Ocean, including New Zealand and Japan. In this region the earth’s crust is weak and land masses are in a state of constant movement. The two ‘continental plates’ which are moving against each other, causing earth tremors and volcanic eruptions, are the continent of Australia and the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Earthquakes sometimes damage houses even in the Sepik lowlands.
(Related entries: GEOGRAPHY, MELANESIA)

120. WANTOK

There are literally hundreds of different languages spoken in Papua New Guinea and, until recently, even neighbouring tribal groups could not communicate with each other. Partly because there is such variety, those who speak the same local language enjoy a special relationship called wantok, literally “one talk”. However, wantok is much more than a language group. It is part of the foundation of Melanesian culture.
People refer to their wantoks in the same way that people in other countries refer to relatives or ‘in-laws’. Everything must be shared with your wantoks and your wantok obligations extend far beyond your responsibilities to husband, wife or children.
The wantok relationship means that you can rely on your wantoks for help and support, but it also demands intense loyalty from you to your language group members above all others. Even in cities and towns away from the village, newcomers or visitors rely on the support of their wantoks.
Traditionally, village politics were based on wantok associations. Wantok is a positive and practical way of organising relationships and sharing wealth, but in PNG today it can also create complications when it comes into conflict with politics and power, or individuals who want to strike out on their own.
(Related entries: LANGUAGE, PAYBACK, VILLAGE RELATIONSHIPS)

121. WEDDINGS: Torembi

The formal wedding ceremony is held only after the complex, often time-consuming negotiations and payments have been settled between the clans of both bride and groom. The ceremony is actually made up of a number of celebrations. The families of the bride and the groom celebrate with feasts. The groom must provide a pig for the bride’s family to cook for their feast and, by tradition, the bride’s parents provide in return a beast identical in size, so the groom can also celebrate with his friends and family.
On the day of the wedding, the bride’s personal drumming signal is sounded on the garamut drum, to call her home for the very last time. Her hair is trimmed, symbolically severing her links with home. Dressed in bridal finery, the bride is joined by her relatives. As she leaves her father’s house, she walks over her relatives, in another symbolic act separating herself from them. She will no longer be considered part of her own family, but will become part of her husband’s family.
The bridal procession walks from the bride’s former house and village to that of the groom. At various points along the way the procession stops and women dance around the bride singing songs which tell of the trials and tribulations she will face as a married woman. As each round of dancing is complete, the bride walks once more over her relatives, and the procession moves on.
When at last she reaches her new home, after more dancing and singing, the bride is either lifted up on a chair and carried bodily into her new home, or climbs the steps herself to live with the man to whom she is now formally married.
Inside the house after the wedding, the guests are seated with the wedding presents spread out on the floor. The bride’s material possessions are displayed for all to see. Gifts to the bride from her family belong to her, not to her husband. In Torembi, many weddings take place over the Christmas holidays, when many people who have left the village for work come back to visit.
(Related entries: BRIDE PRICE, CELEBRATIONS AND CEREMONIES, FUNERALS, MARRIAGE)

122. WOMEN: Papua New Guinea and Sawos

While equal rights for men and women are written into the Papua New Guinea constitution and feature prominently in the symbolism of the decorative facade of the new Parliament House, there are still few women in positions of power and influence. In terms of promoting positive change, a focus on the role of women within village communities is especially important.
Women in Sawos society play a central role in the functioning of community life. They grow or harvest most food requirements — an ongoing and labour-intensive responsibility. They care for children, manage domestic animals, barter goods to supplement the range of available foods and often produce extra foodstuffs or items such as bilums for sale to supplement family income.
However, despite being major contributors to food production, women get less than their fair share of returns from their labour.
(Related entries: ART: Agatha Waramin, BRIDE PRICE, HAUS MARIT, MARRIAGE, SAGO SCRAPING, VILLAGE LIFE)

BACK TO MAIN SAWOS NAVIGATION PAGE
BACK TO THE JOHN TYMAN WELCOME PAGE

TO THE HILLMAN EDUTECH SITE